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Title:
THE STRUCTURE OF DNA
Year:
1953
Source Type:
Journal Paper
Source Name:
Cold Spring Harbor Symposia on Quantitative Biology
Authors:
Watson, J. D.  ()
Crick, F. H. C.  ()
Abstract:
It would be superfluous at a Symposium on Viruses to introduce a paper on the structure of DNA with a discussion on its importance to the problem of virus reproduction. Instead we shall not only assume that DNA is important, but in addition that it is the carrier of the genetic specificity of the virus (for argument, see Hershey, this volume) and thus must possess in some sense the capacity for exact self-duplication. In this paper we shall describe a structure for DNA which suggests a mechanism for its self-duplication and allows us to propose, for the first time, a detailed hypothesis on the atomic level for the self-reproduction of genetic material.
Keywords:
DNA
structure
helical
nucleic acids
replication
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My Research Insights
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My Research Context:
Research Problem:
How do decentralized systems encode, process, and coordinate information?

Research Questions:
What common patterns exist among biological, computational, and economic systems?
How can insights from one domain inform innovations in another?

Supporting Points:
The research paper by Watson and Crick details the structure of DNA and the importance of complementary chains in encoding genetic information, aligning with the research context's inquiry into how decentralized systems encode and coordinate information. By explaining the complementary nature of DNA, the paper provides a biological precedent showing how information is precisely duplicated, thus supporting the idea that biological systems have underlying patterns that could inform innovations in computational or economic systems. The specificity of base pairing offered in the DNA model exemplifies a robust natural mechanism for error-checking and fidelity in information transmission, a concept that can be leveraged to develop more reliable decentralized computational protocols.
The paper illustrates the genetic material's dual role in information encoding and influencing cellular processes, which parallels the research context's investigation into common patterns across systems. The dual aspects of DNA, encoding genetic sequences and determining cellular function, present a systemic framework observed in natural systems that can potentially be applied to improve information processing and coordination in decentralized computational systems. These systems, akin to biological ones, require mechanisms for precise replication and instruction execution, demonstrating thematic alignment across disciplines.
Watson and Crick propose a simple yet effective mechanism for DNA replication based on complementary base pairing, suggesting a decentralized coordination model within biological systems. This mechanism reflects a core principle relevant to the research context of decentralized systems: the ability of systems to autonomously coordinate replication and repair. Their description of how polynucleotide chains can serve as templates for creating new ones echoes the concept of self-organization in decentralized networks, where components independently perform functions that contribute to the whole system’s operation.
Counterarguments:
The paper primarily focuses on the molecular structure of DNA and does not address or foresee complications in applying similar biological replication mechanisms to non-biological systems like computational or economic networks. This divergence presents a significant hurdle in the research context where biological insights are expected to inform technological innovations. While DNA replication within cells is largely internal, computational and economic systems often operate in external and varied environments, making direct application of these biological solutions challenging without addressing broader systemic interactions and dependencies.
While the DNA model suggests a robust natural error-checking mechanism through specific base pairing, applying such precision to decentralized computational and economic systems might not account for environmental fluctuations and multi-agent interactions inherent in these fields. The biological accuracy and fidelity, while conceptually appealing, might not seamlessly fit into the dynamic and less predictable nature of computational and economic environments, where system components do not exhibit the molecular stability observed in DNA.
Despite the inherent advantages in precision offered by the DNA structure, the paper does not address how decentralized systems might handle non-binary states or complex data processing, which are crucial in computational and economic systems. This could be a limiting factor in directly mapping DNA’s binary base pairing technology to systems requiring multifaceted state interpretations and diverse data manipulations.
Future Work:
The paper's implications on genetic encoding invite further exploration into developing error-checking and self-repair mechanisms in computational systems modeled after DNA replication. The research context could delve into creating algorithms that mimic these biological processes to improve data fidelity and robustness against corruption and loss in decentralized networks.
Future work could focus on investigating whether the DNA's specific bonding and replication mechanisms can inspire new methodologies for secure, self-propagating data structures in blockchain or distributed ledger technologies. By integrating insights from DNA's base pairing and replication processes, advancements could be made in enhancing the integrity and reliability of decentralized systems' transactional records.
Exploration of self-repair and autonomous replication strategies seen in biological systems could lead to novel approaches for system maintenance and fault tolerance in economic models. Future research might examine translating DNA’s intrinsic self-correcting abilities into predictive model adjustments and dynamic optimization strategies within decentralized economic platforms.
Open Questions:
How might the replication fidelity of DNA inspire improved data integrity in computational systems while accounting for the inherent unpredictability of their environments?
To what extent can the concept of base pairing in DNA be utilized to advance encoding techniques in economic systems without oversimplifying the complexities involved in market dynamics and currency fluctuations?
What are the limitations of applying biological models like DNA to systems where various independent agents influence outcomes, as opposed to the controlled environment seen in cellular processes?
Critical Insights:
The clear elucidation of DNA as a dual chain encoding system provides a powerful analogy for understanding and perhaps innovatively applying the complementary encoding in digital cryptography and decentralized databases. Identifying errors and ensuring precise replication mirror tasks needed in secure computing and economic systems.
The proposed model's integration of complementary bases illustrates a natural real-world example of efficient information processing and storage, which could crucially inform the development of new computational paradigms such as biological computing or hybrid systems that integrate organic and digital processes.
Watson and Crick’s insights into the specificity of base pairing offer a framework for exploring robust redundancy systems that can support error prevention and data verification in decentralized networks, potentially transforming digital communication and transaction validation.
Research Gaps Addressed:
The concept of specific base pairing addresses the gap in developing new error correction codes for computational and economic systems based on natural paradigms. By mirroring biological redundancy, the research context might advance error detection and correction techniques.
Watson and Crick’s work highlights a gap between molecular precision and macro-level application in various systems. The research context can address this by experimenting with how close the fidelity of DNA replication can be mirrored in software architecture and information systems.
The paper acknowledges the structured yet flexible nature of DNA information processing, identifying a gap in current computational strategies for adapting to environmental variability while ensuring data integrity. Exploring nature-inspired adaptive measures could close this gap.
Noteworthy Discussion Points:
Discussion on the applicability of DNA’s simplistic base pairing and its implications for developing minimalistic yet robust coding systems in computing aligns with the research context’s aim to innovate economical data processing methods.
The potential parallels drawn between DNA replication fidelity and economic transaction accuracy raise discussion points on how biological views can evolve financial technologies, promising advancements in anti-fraud measures and transaction verification.
The paper’s narrative on inherent genetic redundancy and error checking fosters discussion on building similar redundancies in computational networks, facilitating robust self-correction mechanisms vital for secure communications in decentralized systems.
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Standard Summary
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Objective:
The primary objective of Watson and Crick in their seminal paper on the structure of DNA is to assert the significance of DNA as the carrier of genetic information and to elucidate its structural model as a double helix. They aim to present a comprehensive understanding that not only establishes the physical configuration of DNA but also highlights its implications for genetic replication and inheritance. The paper seeks to bridge the gap between physical chemistry and biology, suggesting that the helical structure is essential for the molecular functions of DNA, including its capacity for self-replication and accurate genetic transmission. Additionally, the authors motivate a paradigm shift within molecular biology by proposing that the structural specifics of DNA inherently facilitate biological processes, thus impacting future genetic research and exploration.
Theories:
Watson and Crick invoke theories from molecular biology, chemistry, and structural analysis, particularly emphasizing the role of complementary base pairing and molecular structure in biological functions. They rely on crystallographic data and physical-chemical analyses to substantiate the helical structure of DNA. The concepts of nucleic acid specificity and the implications for genetic mutations also play a role in their theoretical framework. By positioning their findings within the wider discourse on heredity and genetic replication, they contribute to evolving theories about the mechanisms of biology, particularly how molecular structure can dictate function. Their work effectively integrates theoretical perspectives on phenomenology and molecular geometry into practical frameworks for understanding genetic science.
Hypothesis:
The hypothesis examined by Watson and Crick posits that DNA's structure is a double helix formed by two intertwined polynucleotide chains, with specific base pairing dictating the mechanism of genetic replication. They suggest that this configuration is biologically significant, allowing for the preservation of genetic fidelity through complementary base pairing. Additionally, they speculate that variations in base pairing could lead to mutations, further complicating the understanding of genetic diversity. Their model implies the necessity for structural integrity; as such, any breakdown in the helical form or base pairing could result in genetic errors. By proposing this hypothesis, they encourage a deeper exploration of the relationship between molecular structure and biological processes, urging subsequent research to validate or refine their model.
Themes:
The predominant themes within this work include the relationship between molecular structure and genetic function, the specificity of base pairing, and the implications for biological replication. The authors emphasize the double helical structure of DNA, introducing the significance of its geometric arrangement in facilitating genetic processes. Another critical theme is the integration of theoretical perspectives from molecular biology into practical understandings of genetics, which allows for a discussion on genetic mutations and heritability. Additionally, the authors touch on the importance of empirical evidence—such as X-ray diffraction patterns—in shaping modern genetics, laying the groundwork for future explorations into the molecular basis of biological inheritance. These themes collectively enhance the discourse surrounding DNA and its pivotal role in molecular biology.
Methodologies:
Watson and Crick employed a multi-faceted methodological approach that integrates theoretical analysis, empirical data, and structural modeling to derive their conclusions about DNA's structure. They based their findings on previous empirical studies, particularly the X-ray crystallographic data obtained by Franklin and others, which provided insight into the physical dimensions and angles of the DNA helix. By synthesizing experimental data with theoretical constructs from molecular biology, they were able to propose a coherent model that detailed how the structural aspects of DNA influence its biological functionality. Their methodology enabled them to articulate not only the structural characteristics but also the implications for reproduction and inheritance, thus marrying the disciplines of physics and biology in the context of genetic research.
Analysis Tools:
The analysis tools employed by Watson and Crick primarily revolved around X-ray diffraction methods, which facilitated the examination of the crystalline structure of DNA. The authors utilized the data from previous studies to discern the spatial arrangements of various components within the DNA molecule, focusing on base pairs, the helical framework, and nucleotide linkage. They also interpreted available physicochemical data to support their assertions about the fiber's characteristics and the dynamics of replication processes. Furthermore, the combination of stereochemical modeling and empirical data derived from the work of Franklin and Gosling allowed Watson and Crick to visualize and validate their proposed structure. These analytical frameworks were vital in confirming the hypothesis that molecular structure directly impacts biological functions in genetics.
Results:
The results presented by Watson and Crick affirm the double helical structure of DNA, demonstrating how the arrangement of nucleotides leads to specific base pairings essential for genetic fidelity and self-replication. Their findings articulate a coherent model wherein the two intertwined chains are maintained through hydrogen bonding between complementary bases, with the sugar-phosphate backbone providing structural integrity. The results also highlight the importance of the helical geometry in facilitating the winding and unwinding of DNA during replication processes. Additionally, their work addresses the molecular implications of variations in nucleotide sequences, suggesting pathways for the occurrence of genetic mutations. Overall, the results substantiate the hypothesis that DNA structure governs both its biological function and its role in heredity, offering foundational insights for future research into genetic systems.
Key Findings:
Key findings from Watson and Crick include the confirmation of DNA as a double helix, which represents a pivotal shift in understanding molecular biology. The authors establish that the specific pairing of adenine with thymine and guanine with cytosine is crucial for maintaining genetic information throughout replication, ensuring fidelity in hereditary transmission. They also propose a mechanism for self-replication, positing that each strand serves as a template for the synthesis of a complementary strand, thereby facilitating genetic continuity. Furthermore, their findings explore the potential for mutations arising from tautomeric shifts, leading to variations in base pairing, which adds complexity to the study of genetic diversity. Ultimately, these findings lay the groundwork for subsequent exploration of molecular genetics and the comprehensive understanding of DNA's role in biological processes.
Possible Limitations:
Despite the groundbreaking nature of Watson and Crick's findings, several limitations can be identified. First, while the model effectively describes the structural aspects of DNA, it does not address how the cellular context influences the behavior of DNA in living organisms. The question of how proteins and other macromolecules interact with DNA during processes like replication and transcription also remains unresolved. Additionally, their model assumes a uniformity in base pairing that may not capture the full complexity of genetic information variation present in different organisms. Finally, the proposed mechanism for self-replication, while innovative, necessitates further empirical verification to confirm its validity within cellular conditions. These limitations highlight the ongoing need for research to elucidate the interactions and dynamics of DNA in biological systems.
Future Implications:
The implications of Watson and Crick's work extend far into future research within molecular biology and genetics. Their structural model of DNA provides a foundation for understanding the molecular mechanisms underlying inheritance, mutation, and the regulation of gene expression. It sets the stage for advancements in genetic engineering, biotechnology, and therapeutic applications. Furthermore, their insights into base pairing and structural integrity prompt further inquiry into evolutionary processes and the dynamics of genetic variation. Subsequent studies may explore the interactions between DNA and other cellular components, including proteins and RNA, broadening the understanding of genomic function. Ultimately, Watson and Crick's contributions promise to influence an array of scientific disciplines, from genetics and evolutionary biology to medicine and synthetic biology.
Key Ideas / Insights:
The Helical Structure of DNA
Watson and Crick propose that the structure of DNA is a double helix, consisting of two polynucleotide chains coiled around each other, with the bases oriented inward and the phosphate-sugar backbones outward. This discovery fundamentally altered the understanding of genetic material, providing insights that describe how the arrangement supports both structural integrity and biochemical functionality. The helical nature allows for efficient packing in the nucleus while also facilitating the necessary interactions for replication and transcription. Moreover, the geometric arrangement aids in the specific pairing of bases through hydrogen bonds, adding to the stability and functionality of the genetic code, thus emphasizing the molecular basis of heredity.
Base Pairing Specificity
The authors elucidate that the pairing between bases is highly specific, with adenine pairing only with thymine and guanine with cytosine. This specificity is essential for accurate DNA replication and ensures transmission of genetic information. The study highlights the implications of this model, demonstrating how mutations could occur through tautomeric shifts, leading to changes in base pairing that may affect genetic outcomes. The mechanism of hydrogen bonding between complementary bases allows for the fidelity of genetic information to be preserved during cell division, thereby establishing a crucial link between structure and function in molecular biology.
Genetic Implications and Self-Replication
The authors explore the implications of their proposed structure regarding genetic duplication and specificity. They describe a mechanism where each strand of the DNA helix serves as a template for the synthesis of a complementary strand, suggesting that this process occurs without complex protein involvement, instead relying on base pair complementarity. This foundational step in understanding genetic replication sets the stage for further exploration of molecular dynamics, such as how this process might operate within living cells, and introduces questions about the potential for mutations and genetic diversity, positing that variations in base pairing could lead to evolutionary changes.
Key Foundational Works:
N/A
Key or Seminal Citations:
Astbury, W. T., 1947. X-Ray Studies of nucleic acids in tissues. Sym. Soc. Exp. Biol. 1:66-76.
Gulland, J. M., and Jordan, D. O., 1946. The macromolecular behavior of nucleic acids. Sym. Soc. Exp. Biol. 1:56-65.
Wilkins, M. H. F., Gosling, R. G., and Seeds, W. E., 1951. Physical studies of nucleic acids--nucleic acid: an extensible molecule. Nature, Lond. 167:759-760.
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Metadata
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Volume:
18
Issue:
NA
Article No:
NA
Book Title:
NA
Book Chapter:
NA
Publisher:
Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press
Publisher City:
NA
DOI:
10.1101/SQB.1953.018.01.020
arXiv Id:
NA
Access URL:
NA
Peer Reviewed:
yes
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Title:
The Use of Knowledge in Society
Year:
1945
Source Type:
Journal Paper
Source Name:
The American Economic Review
Authors:
Hayek, F.A.  ()
Abstract:
The aim of this paper is to indicate the problems of utilizing knowledge in society. The author addresses how knowledge is never fully concentrated or integrated, but is instead dispersed across society, making the economic problem one of finding ways to utilize this knowledge. Discussions on planning, competition, and the role of price systems to communicate information are presented. The implications for economic organization, the importance of decentralized knowledge in decision-making, and how the price mechanism acts as a tool for economic calculation are emphasized.
Keywords:
economic order
knowledge dissemination
central planning
market efficiency
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My Research Insights
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My Research Context:
Research Problem:
How do decentralized systems encode, process, and coordinate information?

Research Questions:
What common patterns exist among biological, computational, and economic systems?
How can insights from one domain inform innovations in another?

Supporting Points:
The research paper highlights the role of decentralized systems in efficiently utilizing dispersed knowledge within the context of economic systems. Hayek argues that in a decentralized economic order, individual participants act based on localized and often tacit knowledge, which mirrors the information encoding patterns observed in biological systems where local actors respond to immediate environmental cues. This parallels the research context which aims to explore commonalities across different domains in how they encode and process information. Hayek's emphasis on the use of dispersed knowledge in economic systems provides a foundational framework that can be applied to understand similar processes in computational and biological systems.
The paper discusses the importance of the price system in coordinating decentralized decision-making, which aligns with computational systems that also process information through distributed node cooperation. The idea that prices can act as signals that convey vital information about resource availability and demand, thereby facilitating coordination without centralized control, offers a direct connection to the research context focusing on coordination in decentralized systems across various domains. The price mechanism as an implicit communicator resonates with how computational algorithms function to manage and process distributed information effectively.
Counterarguments:
Hayek's paper suggests that centralized control is inherently limited due to the dispersed nature of knowledge, which might diverge from certain computational systems that successfully implement centralized algorithms for coordination and processing. This presents a counterpoint to the research context where innovations in one domain are utilized to inform another; specific centralized computational methods could provide insights into overcoming limitations highlighted in economic systems. Thus, the research context may challenge Hayek’s view on the limitations of centralized systems, particularly in computational scenarios where central processing can handle complex datasets efficiently.
Future Work:
Hayek’s discussion of the role of decentralized decision-making in economic systems implies a need for further exploration of how similar principles can inform computational and biological systems’ design. The future research outlined in the context can build upon this by examining specific case studies across domains, thereby identifying broader patterns and insights that can enhance decentralized structures' efficiency and effectiveness. By extending Hayek’s economic frameworks to computational and biological systems, future work could develop hybrid solutions leveraging decentralized and centralized elements.
Open Questions:
The concept of how much detailed knowledge needs to be communicated for effective decision-making in decentralized systems raises unresolved questions about the optimal balance of information flow in such systems. This ties directly into the research context’s query into how different domains handle information processing and could guide inquiries into designing more efficient communication protocols within decentralized networks.
Critical Insights:
Hayek provides a critical insight into the mechanisms of spontaneous order, where decentralized systems align individual actions through market signals like price mechanisms. Understanding this process offers a perspective for the research context on how diverse and disconnected information processes in various domains can similarly achieve coordination and coherence. This insight is pivotal for developing new models in computational and biological systems that rely on distributed information processing.
Research Gaps Addressed:
The research paper identifies a gap in understanding how effectively decentralized systems can process fragmented knowledge without complete information. The research context could address this by developing theoretical models that illustrate how interconnections between nodes in computational and biological networks compensate for information fragmentation, offering actionable insights to improve efficiency and coordination in such systems.
Noteworthy Discussion Points:
The examination of the price system's role in coordinating disparate economic activities raises discussions about the parallels between economic and computational systems, where market prices and data packets play analogous roles in coordinating system components. This discussion point is engaged by the research context, which seeks to explore shared patterns across domains to inform and innovate new structures for decentralized coordination.
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Standard Summary
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Objective:
The primary objective of Hayek's paper is to explore the intricacies surrounding the utilization of knowledge within a society, emphasizing that the fragmentation of information among individuals poses significant challenges for economic organization. He aims to delineate how individual decisions, based on unique local knowledge, contribute to the effectiveness of resource allocation in contrast to centralized planning. Hayek's work seeks to advocate for a decentralized approach to economic planning, where individual agents directly informed by their knowledge actively participate in economic decision-making processes. This approach challenges the traditional economic narratives favoring centralized control and posits that markets operate effectively not merely through theoretical underpinnings but through genuine reliance on the abilities of individuals to navigate complexities. The paper's implications extend into policy areas, suggesting that fostering conditions for decentralized decision-making could enhance overall economic efficiency. In sum, Hayek underlines that the coordination of individual actions, informed by personal knowledge, represents a more viable path for societal economic functioning than rigid planning frameworks.
Theories:
The theories employed within Hayek's exploration of knowledge in society pivot around the concepts of dispersed knowledge and spontaneous order. He interrogates the assumptions underlying traditional economic doctrines that advocate for central planning, arguing that such models fail to recognize the critical role that individual knowledge plays in effective economic planning. Hayek further delves into the theory of prices as a significant mechanism through which this dispersed knowledge is communicated and coordinated in the marketplace. The interaction between consumers and producers, facilitated by the price system, actualizes a form of economic order devoid of central oversight, signifying how individual decisions dynamically reshape the economic landscape. In addition, Hayek brings forth the notion of competition as a decentralized planning method that advances society by leveraging the distinct information possessed by numerous economic agents. His work elucidates how markets can function efficiently through a network of individual influences, underpinning the broader theoretical framework of liberal economics that champions minimal intervention and maximal individual agency.
Hypothesis:
Hayek's hypothesis posits that the economic challenges faced by society arise not primarily from a lack of resources but from the inherent dispersion of knowledge among individuals. He suggests that effective economic organization is contingent upon mechanisms that allow for the leveraging of this dispersed knowledge rather than relying on a centralized authority. By focusing on the implications of decentralized decision-making, the hypothesis implies that market systems, which capitalize on the capabilities of individual actors to respond to price signals, outperform centrally planned economies. Furthermore, Hayek's claims are grounded in the belief that individuals, informed by local and specific knowledge, make decisions that contribute to a socially beneficial economic order. Hence, the hypothesis challenges conventional theories that advocate for comprehensive planning and illustrates that it is the interaction and coordination of individual knowledge that principally drives economic efficiency and adaptation.
Themes:
Significant themes permeate Hayek's analysis, primarily revolving around the dynamics of knowledge distribution within society, the implications of individual decision-making, and the contrasting efficacy of market mechanisms versus central planning. A central theme is the validation of decentralized knowledge and its influence on resource allocation, juxtaposed against the inadequacies of central authorities that cannot aggregate the essential insights possessed by individuals. Furthermore, the discussion addresses the importance of prices as communicative instruments that embody and relay critical market information. Hayek also delves into the theme of competition as a natural mechanism guiding economic behavior, enhancing the notion that uncoerced actions by individuals lead to beneficial economic outcomes. Collectively, these themes underscore the need for systems that prioritize individual agency and adapt in real time to fluctuating conditions, illuminating a path towards achieving more effective economic organization.
Methodologies:
Hayek's methodology primarily incorporates a critical analysis of existing economic theories while presenting empirical examples that demonstrate the flaws of central planning. He engages in theoretical discourse, utilizing logical reasoning to dissect the function of knowledge within economic contexts and its implications for policy formulation. By contrasting the outcomes of decentralized decision-making with that of centralized planning, Hayek synthesizes insights from practical observations, further substantiating his arguments with historical references to economic performance in various settings. This methodological approach enables him to highlight the deficiencies inherent in attempts to impose organized frameworks upon inherently disordered systems, contributing to a robust philosophical discourse regarding the organization of economic activity. His emphasis on case studies, along with an analysis of market processes through theoretical lenses, underscores the adaptive nature of economic systems and the necessity of allowing individual insights to inform broader decisions.
Analysis Tools:
The analytical tools employed by Hayek include logical argumentation and comparative analysis, aimed at illustrating the efficacy of decentralized knowledge over centralized planning. He applies a conceptual framework that emphasizes the role of prices as carriers of information within markets, which enables individuals to adjust their behavior in response to changing conditions without requiring comprehensive knowledge of the entire economic landscape. Additionally, the analysis involves the exploration of market mechanisms as emergent properties that arise from individual actions rather than explicit, mandated designs. By employing these analytical tools, Hayek effectively critiques existing theoretical underpinnings surrounding economic thought, showcasing how real-world applications challenge much of the traditional economic wisdom that favors centralization, thereby advocating for a reimagination of economic organization aligned with the realities of knowledge distribution.
Results:
Hayek presents the results of his examination as a compelling argument for the efficiency of market systems over centrally planned economies. He finds that the coordination achieved through the price mechanism results in a level of responsiveness to individual needs and preferences that centralized planning fundamentally cannot replicate. The effectiveness of spontaneous order, as influenced by the knowledge each individual possesses, leads to better outcomes concerning resource allocation and responsiveness to market dynamics. Furthermore, the outcome of his analysis indicates that attempts by central authorities to impose organization on the market can lead to systemic inefficiencies and resource misallocations, reinforcing Hayek's premise that decentralized mechanisms yield preferable results. The conclusions drawn from this inquiry emphasize the indispensable nature of individual knowledge in driving societal progress and advocate for fostering economic environments that capitalize on this intrinsic order rather than constraining it through rigid planning structures.
Key Findings:
Hayek's key findings revolve around the critical insight that the dissemination and utilization of knowledge in society are paramount to effective economic organization. He concludes that dispersed knowledge necessitates decentralized decision-making, allowing individuals to act based on localized information to achieve optimal resource allocations. Additionally, the findings underscore the functionality of prices in communicating values and signaling changes in supply and demand, thus facilitating the market's adjustment to new information. Furthermore, central planning proves inadequate when confronted with the realities of knowledge distribution, as it cannot account for the myriad of localized insights that significantly influence economic interactions. Ultimately, Hayek identifies that fostering a system where individual knowledge drives decision-making processes and market behavior results in a more efficient economic order than imposed structures could achieve. This research culminates in a strong advocacy for the continuous exploration of decentralized economic frameworks that leverage knowledge rather than dictate it.
Possible Limitations:
A potential limitation of Hayek's analysis is the assumption that market participants possess the requisite knowledge and motivation to respond to price signals effectively. While he presents a compelling argument for the efficiency of decentralized systems, it remains to be seen how pervasive individual knowledge truly is across various economic contexts, especially in instances of systemic inequality that might hinder access to necessary information. Moreover, his arguments may underestimate the complexities that arise in dynamic markets, where rapid changes can lead to information disparities that inhibit effective decision-making. Additionally, while Hayek critiques central planning, he does not provide comprehensive frameworks for what effective decentralized systems would entail in practice, potentially leaving gaps for policymakers seeking to implement these ideas. Thus, while the argumentation is robust, the real-world application of these principles raises questions about the uniformity of knowledge distribution among individuals and the confines of market dynamics.
Future Implications:
The implications of Hayek's work extend significantly into future research on economic systems and policies, particularly concerning the emphasis on decentralized knowledge utilization in resource allocation. Future explorations might focus on developing practical models that harness individual knowledge within various sectors to promote economic resilience and efficiency. Moreover, ongoing analysis into the impacts of technology on knowledge dissemination could yield insights into how digital platforms might serve to bridge gaps in information between market actors. Additionally, the evolving landscape of global trade and its reliance on individual agents responding to changing conditions could provide fertile ground for implementing Hayek’s principles in contemporary settings. Ultimately, future research could investigate how to integrate Hayek's theoretical constructs into empirical studies that assess the efficacy of decentralized decision-making frameworks across diverse economies, potentially enhancing economic policy by leveraging localized knowledge and promoting systems that support adaptive, flexible responses to market dynamics.
Key Ideas / Insights:
Dispersed Knowledge
Hayek argues that the economic problem of society lies fundamentally in how knowledge is distributed among individuals rather than being centrally concentrated. This dispersed nature of knowledge implies that effective economic decisions cannot be made by a single entity, as each individual possesses unique information pertinent to their own circumstances. Such knowledge often includes local insights and practical information which is not generalizable or scientifically documented. The paper criticizes the reliance on central planning, as it cannot adequately utilize this wealth of individual knowledge effectively. Instead, Hayek champions decentralized decision-making, where local actors can make informed choices based upon their specific situations, thereby leading to better resource allocation and social cooperation. The price mechanism, as an emergent feature of a competitive system, becomes crucial in coordinating the actions of these individuals, allowing them to respond flexibly to changes without needing a comprehensive, centralized directive.
Role of Prices
In exploring the pivotal nature of the price system, Hayek elucidates how prices function as a form of communication that conveys information about scarcity and preference without individuals needing to understand the entirety of an economic landscape. The interconnectedness of markets means that when a change occurs in one benefit sector—such as a new demand for tin, for instance—market signals guide countless individuals in making decisions regarding production and consumption accordingly. This system illustrates how the coordination of numerous independent actions results in an overall adaptation to new circumstances, promoting economic efficiency. Importantly, Hayek emphasizes that such adaptations occur organically as responses to price changes, rather than through a centralized plan or directive. The mechanism allows for a dynamic adjustment to supply and demand, showcasing how individuals can act in their self-interest while benefiting the collective economic system, reinforcing the concepts of spontaneity and order in market interactions.
Challenges of Central Planning
Hayek critically assesses the limitations inherent in central planning theories, positing that such approaches often fail to account for the nuances of localized knowledge. He argues that while a central authority may possess theoretical knowledge, it cannot effectively replicate the intricate web of information dispersed throughout society. Attempts to centralize decision-making overlook the significance of situational awareness, which individuals have based on their unique perspectives and experiences. The challenges faced by central planners include the inability to access real-time, specific knowledge regarding local conditions and the immediate demands of varying markets. These systematic deficits can lead to widespread inefficiencies and misallocation of resources, often resulting in economic disruptions. Hayek ultimately advocates for a market-oriented system where individuals, informed by their localized knowledge, can navigate economic complexities through decentralized mechanisms, thwarting the inefficiencies attributable to rigid planning structures.
Key Foundational Works:
N/A
Key or Seminal Citations:
Smith, A. (1776). The Wealth of Nations.
Schumpeter, J.A. (1942). Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy.
Pareto, V. (1896). Cours d'Économie Politique.
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Metadata
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Volume:
35
Issue:
4
Article No:
NA
Book Title:
NA
Book Chapter:
NA
Publisher:
NA
Publisher City:
NA
DOI:
NA
arXiv Id:
NA
Access URL:
NA
Peer Reviewed:
yes
================================================================================
Title:
Attention Is All You Need
Year:
2017
Source Type:
Conference Paper
Source Name:
31st Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems (NIPS 2017)
Authors:
Vaswani, Ashish A. (avaswani@google.com)
Shazeer, Noam  (noam@google.com)
Parmar, Niki  (nikip@google.com)
Uszkoreit, Jakob  (usz@google.com)
Jones, Llion  (llion@google.com)
Gomez, Aidan N.  (aidan@cs.toronto.edu)
Kaiser, Łukasz  (lukaszkaiser@google.com)
Polosukhin, Illia  (illia.polosukhin@gmail.com)
Abstract:
The dominant sequence transduction models are based on complex recurrent or convolutional neural networks that include an encoder and a decoder. The best performing models also connect the encoder and decoder through an attention mechanism. We propose a new simple network architecture, the Transformer, based solely on attention mechanisms, dispensing with recurrence and convolutions entirely. Experiments on two machine translation tasks show these models to be superior in quality while being more parallelizable and requiring significantly less time to train. Our model achieves 28.4 BLEU on the WMT 2014 English-to-German translation task, improving over the existing best results, including ensembles, by over 2 BLEU. On the WMT 2014 English-to-French translation task, our model establishes a new single-model state-of-the-art BLEU score of 41.8 after training for 3.5 days on eight GPUs, a small fraction of the training costs of the best models from the literature. We show that the Transformer generalizes well to other tasks by applying it successfully to English constituency parsing both with large and limited training data.
Keywords:
Transformer
attention mechanism
machine translation
neural networks
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My Research Insights
========================================
My Research Context:
Research Problem:
How do decentralized systems encode, process, and coordinate information?

Research Questions:
What common patterns exist among biological, computational, and economic systems?
How can insights from one domain inform innovations in another?

Supporting Points:
The research paper introduces the Transformer model, which relies on self-attention mechanisms to encode and process information without the need for recurrence or convolutions. This approach aligns with the research context as it highlights a decentralized method for information coordination, where data dependencies are managed through attention mechanisms rather than centralized processing units. The research context can build on the idea of using self-attention as a model to understand information processing in decentralized systems, such as biological and economic structures, where decentralized encoding allows for parallel processing and reduces the bottlenecks associated with sequential information handling.
The paper demonstrates the capability of the Transformer model to generalize across different tasks, indicating how insights from one domain (natural language processing) can be applied to another (constituency parsing). This supports the research context's exploration of transferring insights between domains, suggesting methodologies for recognizing common patterns and applying them more broadly. The research context can utilize this cross-domain applicability as a framework to identify and generalize patterns from biological or economic systems to computational theories, facilitating interdisciplinary innovations.
The Transformer model's use of parallel computing to enhance processing efficiency provides a direct parallel to the research context's interest in how decentralized systems improve information coordination. By focusing on models that optimize parallel processing, the research context can explore decentralized systems' potential to handle vast and complex data efficiently, similar to the Transformer model's improvements in computational efficiency and effectiveness over traditional recurrent models.
Counterarguments:
While the Transformer model excels in parallel processing, the research context, which considers decentralized biological and economic systems, must address potential limitations regarding the model's neglect of sequential dependencies that are prevalent in natural systems. Biological and economic systems often rely on sequential decision-making processes that might diverge from the non-sequential, attention-based approach of the Transformer. Thus, the research context needs to evaluate how such systems can incorporate sequential processing without losing the advantages of decentralized encoding that the Transformer model provides.
The research paper highlights the superiority of the Transformer for language translations but might not fully address the error propagation and robustness challenges faced by dynamic and unpredictable environments like economic systems. The research context must diverge by considering how decentralized systems that process information in a dynamic environment manage errors and uncertainties, ensuring that insights from computational processes like those used in the Transformer are adaptable and resilient across non-static domains.
The idea of solely attention-based models challenges the research context’s consideration of hybrid systems, where various mechanisms input together, like in biological systems.. Since the Transformer eliminates recurrence and convolution, it requires exploration of how hybrid systems can effectively balance different processing mechanisms. The research context should thus recognize these diverging points to better align with systems that inherently integrate various forms of information processing.
Future Work:
The research paper suggests expanding the Transformer approach to different modalities, including audio, images, and video. This aligns with the research context's aim of extending insights from computational models to broader systems, including biological and economic domains. It provides a foundation for how decentralized models in computing could inform processing techniques across a diverse array of inputs, potentially revolutionizing how interdisciplinary systems coordinate and encode complex data.
Future work mentioned in the paper involves the development and possible enhancements of attention-based models to decrease sequential dependence further, which the research context can adopt in exploring continuous coordination dynamics in decentralized systems. By understanding how to diminish sequential constraints in computational models, the research context could yield innovative ways to manage real-time processing and decision-making in decentralized entities.
The paper highlights ongoing research into memory-efficient methods, which can be related to the research context’s pursuit of optimal resource allocation and processing in decentralized systems. This connection between computational efficiency and resource management allows for potential innovation in how biological and economic systems might evolve to handle an exponentially growing amount of data seamlessly and effectively.
Open Questions:
One significant question revolves around enhancing the understanding of attention mechanisms in decomposing tasks into smaller components. The research context could consider how breaking down complex systems into manageable subsets can advance the study of decentralized systems, focusing on specific elements of biological, computational, or economic dynamics that were not clearly addressed in the paper.
There is also an inquiry into the adaptability of models like the Transformer when applied to varying task types and sizes. From a research context perspective, understanding how these models can be reengineered to accommodate diverse functional demands in decentralized systems would be a valuable pursuit, especially concerning efficiency in coordinating information across different scales.
The paper raises the question of scalability and maintaining performance in expanded contexts with increased data inputs. Addressing how decentralized systems manage scalability and sustain information processing without degradation in performance remains an open question that merits exploration for further clarifying the efficiency and dependability of decentralized models.
Critical Insights:
The Transformer model's introduction of self-attention as a primary mechanism for information processing offers a groundbreaking perspective relevant to the research context. By replacing traditional sequential approaches with self-attention, the model enables significant parallelization and efficiency, which is particularly critical in understanding how decentralized systems could achieve and maintain efficient information processing. This insight helps frame the computational parallelism necessary for analyzing biological and economic systems' decentralization strategies.
The layering structure in the Transformer model, encompassing encoder and decoder stacks with self-attention and feed-forward networks, provides a framework the research context can employ to develop layered modular representations in decentralized systems. These structures can aid in delineating and coordinating complex interactions within systems, offering a blueprint for examining layers of interaction in economic or biological contexts.
Key insights regarding the Transformer's ability to generalize well to diverse and complex tasks resonate intensely with the research context's aims. This capacity for generalization may help in identifying pattern recognition methods that span multiple domains, supporting interdisciplinary research efforts that leverage computational paradigms to understand and innovate across disparate fields.
Research Gaps Addressed:
The research paper identifies gaps in dealing with long-range dependencies, offering the opportunity for the research context to explore how decentralized systems might address similar concerns using modular, attention-based constructs. Addressing these gaps can contribute to solving longstanding challenges of coordinating distant components within a system.
Another gap noted is in model explainability, which the research context might address by innovating transparency-focused methods based on attention mechanisms in decentralized systems. The research context could contribute methodologies to enhance the interpretability of processes, allowing for a better understanding of complex systems operations.
The challenge of high-dimensional data processing, raised by the paper, also aligns with gaps the research context could fill. The opportunity exists to explore applications for managing high-dimensional signals within decentralized systems, borrowing from the Transformer's strategies to handle multifunctional information inputs effectively.
Noteworthy Discussion Points:
The paper’s discussion on the scalability of attention mechanisms to process large amounts of data provides a point for discourse within the research context, especially in terms of how decentralized systems handle scalability without loss of information fidelity. Understanding these connections can aid developments in scalable data processing in biological and economic systems.
Another discussion point centers around the paper’s emphasis on the flexibility and adaptability of the Transformer model in various tasks, which is crucial for the research context in exploring how decentralized systems manage adaptability in real-time. It opens discussions on how these systems remain agile and responsive to dynamic changes.
Attention to the computational efficiency achieved through the Transformer model raises important discourse on the balance of performance and resource allocation. This is relevant to the research context, where optimizing resource use in decentralized systems remains a pivotal area. Exploring this balance can drive innovations in the sustainability of large-scale, self-coordinating systems.
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Standard Summary
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Objective:
The primary objective of the authors is to introduce the Transformer architecture as a novel solution to the limitations faced by traditional sequence transduction models, which rely heavily on recurrent or convolutional operations. The authors aim to demonstrate that a solely attention-based approach can outperform existing models in terms of both efficiency and translation quality, particularly in machine translation tasks. They posit that this architectural innovation offers not only improved performance metrics but also significantly reduces the time required for training, making it more practical for real-world applications. Another critical motivation is to establish the Transformer as a versatile model capable of generalizing across multiple language-related tasks, thereby challenging the prevailing paradigms in natural language processing. Through meticulous experiments, the authors also intend to highlight the effectiveness of their model, showcasing its state-of-the-art results in the WMT 2014 translation tasks and its adaptability to tasks such as English constituency parsing, ultimately positioning the Transformer as a significant advancement in neural network design.
Theories:
The authors primarily leverage the theory of attention mechanisms to underpin the development of the Transformer architecture. The concept of self-attention serves as the backbone of their model, facilitating the establishment of contextual relationships between different words in a sequence without the constraints of recurrence. This theoretical foundation is complemented by the principles of parallel computation, which the authors argue enhances efficiency and scalability. Moreover, the integral role of positional encoding in the Transformer model reflects an understanding of sequence characteristics, allowing the architecture to incorporate information about token order despite the absence of conventional sequential processing. Additionally, the authors draw upon various theories related to neural network optimization, particularly in managing long-range dependencies effectively. These theoretical underpinnings collectively inform the design choices made in developing the Transformer, ultimately contributing to its robustness and performance across diverse NLP tasks.
Hypothesis:
The authors hypothesize that a model based solely on self-attention mechanisms can outperform traditional sequence transduction models that utilize recurrent or convolutional layers. They predict that by avoiding the sequential computation bottlenecks present in recurrent architectures, the Transformer can achieve better performance metrics in tasks like machine translation while also being more efficient in terms of training time. Furthermore, the authors aim to illustrate that the Transformer architecture can generalize well across different tasks, including those that extend beyond the scope of machine translation, thereby reaffirming the versatility and capability of attention-based models in natural language processing. Implicit in this hypothesis is the expectation that self-attention not only facilitates better contextual understanding of sequences but also enhances the complexity of relationships that can be captured in the model, contributing to richer representations of input data.
Themes:
The central themes in the paper revolve around the innovation of the Transformer model, the efficacy of attention mechanisms in neural network architectures, and the implications for machine translation and other NLP tasks. The authors extensively explore the transformative impact of moving away from recurrence and convolutions towards a model entirely based on attention, illustrating the paradigm shift this represents in neural network design. Another essential theme is the practical application of the Transformer, demonstrated through robust empirical results that showcase its superiority in real-world translation tasks. Additionally, the authors discuss the adaptability of the model across various tasks, highlighting its potential to reshape methodologies in NLP. They also touch upon the broader implications of this work for future research, encouraging further exploration into attention mechanisms and their applications beyond conventional text processing. Collectively, these themes emphasize not only the scientific novelty of the Transformer but also its utility in addressing pressing challenges in natural language understanding and generation.
Methodologies:
The authors utilize a combination of empirical testing and theoretical analysis to validate their proposed architecture, the Transformer. They conduct extensive experiments on two primary machine translation tasks—English-to-German and English-to-French—to assess the performance of their model against established benchmarks in the field. The methodology involves training the Transformer model on large datasets, employing techniques such as multi-head attention and positional encoding to enhance its learning capabilities. The authors also compare the results of the Transformer with traditional models, providing insights into the efficacy of their architecture. Data preprocessing, including byte-pair encoding, is utilized to ensure efficient handling of input sequences. Furthermore, the approach incorporates rigorous testing to evaluate the generalizability of the Transformer, applying it to English constituency parsing tasks to illustrate its versatility. This multi-faceted methodology encapsulates both quantitative assessments through performance metrics like BLEU scores and qualitative considerations regarding the model's adaptability to varied NLP tasks.
Analysis Tools:
The analysis tools employed in this research chiefly involve a mix of evaluation metrics and visualizations tailored to assess the model's performance and understand the inner workings of attention mechanisms. The authors prominently use BLEU scores as a primary quantitative metric for comparing translation quality against established benchmarks, enabling a clear assessment of the Transformer’s effectiveness in machine translation tasks. Additionally, they leverage visualization techniques to examine the distribution of attention across various layers and heads of the model, allowing deeper insights into how the Transformer captures dependencies within the input sequences. The authors also analyze training efficiency metrics, including computation time and resource utilization, to showcase the advantages of their architecture over traditional models. This comprehensive analytical framework provides robust evidence supporting their claims regarding the performance and practicality of the Transformer model, ensuring a well-rounded evaluation across both qualitative and quantitative dimensions.
Results:
The results presented in the paper indicate that the Transformer architecture significantly outperforms existing models in both English-to-German and English-to-French translation tasks. The model achieves a BLEU score of 28.4 on the WMT 2014 English-to-German task, establishing a new benchmark and surpassing previous best results by over 2 BLEU points. For the English-to-French task, the Transformer reaches a BLEU score of 41.8, again setting a new single-model state-of-the-art. These accomplishments are notably achieved with reduced training time of approximately 3.5 days on eight GPUs, a stark contrast to the extensive resources required by earlier models. Furthermore, the authors demonstrate that the Transformer generalizes well to other tasks, successfully applying it to English constituency parsing and illustrating its versatility and effectiveness across different linguistic challenges. The results underscore the practical implications of the model, showcasing its capacity to facilitate rapid advancements in natural language processing and machine learning applications.
Key Findings:
The key findings of the study highlight the superiority of the Transformer model in achieving state-of-the-art results in machine translation tasks while maintaining superior training efficiency. The authors show that by eliminating recurrence and directly employing self-attention mechanisms, the Transformer model not only significantly enhances BLEU scores on both tested translation tasks but also reduces the required training time. Another notable finding is the model's performance on English constituency parsing, illustrating its generalizability across diverse natural language processing tasks. This adaptability indicates that the attention mechanisms at the core of the Transformer can effectively manage different types of language data, affirming the architecture’s flexibility. Additionally, the findings suggest that the benefits of parallel computation inherent in the Transformer design provide a compelling pathway for future developments in neural network architectures, particularly as more complex language tasks are addressed.
Possible Limitations:
While the paper presents compelling advancements through the Transformer model, it acknowledges a few potential limitations. One concern is associated with the computational demands of attention mechanisms, particularly as the sequence length increases, which could impact the model's scalability for significantly larger datasets or longer sentences. The authors suggest that further optimization may be necessary to address computational bottlenecks in future iterations of the architecture. Another limitation is the reliance on large amounts of high-quality training data; while the model demonstrates generalizability, its optimal performance seems contingent on sufficient training resources, which may not always be available in every application. The authors also note the need for continued exploration of task-specific tuning to enhance performance in particular contexts, as the broad applicability of the Transformer may require tailored adjustments to maximize efficacy. These identified limitations set the stage for further research and practical adaptations of the model.
Future Implications:
The authors envision several future research directions that build upon the Transformer architecture and its established principles. One significant implication involves exploring varied applications of attention mechanisms across different domains outside of text processing, suggesting avenues for integrating similar attention-based models in areas such as image recognition and audio processing, where context and dependency relationships are critical. Additionally, the authors propose investigating techniques to restrict attention mechanisms to manage longer sequences efficiently, potentially enhancing the model's scalability. There is also a call for deeper analyses of the Transformer’s interpretability, which could provide insights into how and why specific attention patterns arise in different contexts, leading to better understanding and refinement of the model. Furthermore, the authors advocate for continued experimentation with hybrid architectures that may combine the strengths of self-attention with chosen recurrent or convolution-based methods. Overall, these future implications emphasize the ongoing relevance of the Transformer model as a pivotal influence in the evolution of neural network designs in various fields.
Key Ideas / Insights:
Attention as the Core Mechanism
The paper introduces the Transformer model, which relies solely on self-attention mechanisms, excluding recurrence and convolutions. This architectural shift allows the Transformer to develop dependencies across input sequences without sequential processing, leading to significant computational efficiency improvements and enhanced parallelization. The authors demonstrate that attention mechanisms facilitate the capturing of complex dependencies, exceeding traditional models in performance metrics such as BLEU scores in machine translation tasks. The rationale is that the self-attention mechanism's ability to compute relationships between all input positions simultaneously addresses limitations posed by previous architectures like recurrent networks.
Performance Achievements
The experimental results reveal that the Transformer model achieves substantial performance improvements in machine translation tasks, specifically achieving a BLEU score of 28.4 in English-to-German translation and 41.8 in English-to-French translation. This performance surpasses that of previously established state-of-the-art models, signifying the practical application and effectiveness of the proposed architecture. The authors emphasize the reduced training times associated with the Transformer, asserting that it can achieve competitive performance at a fraction of the computational cost required by other models. This positions the Transformer as a favorable alternative in real-world applications.
Generalizability Across Tasks
The authors demonstrate the generalizability of the Transformer architecture by successfully applying it to the task of English constituency parsing, showcasing its adaptability beyond machine translation. They indicate that the model performs adequately even with limited training data, suggesting that the strengths of attention mechanisms can be leveraged in diverse contexts. This versatility and the ability to maintain high performance in varying scenarios are underscored as a pivotal contribution of the Transformer model, opening avenues for further exploration in multiple language processing tasks and beyond.
Key Foundational Works:
N/A
Key or Seminal Citations:
Bahdanau et al. (2014)
Luong et al. (2015)
Vinyals et al. (2015)
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Metadata
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Volume:
NA
Issue:
NA
Article No:
NA
Book Title:
NA
Book Chapter:
NA
Publisher:
Curran Associates
Publisher City:
Long Beach, CA, USA
DOI:
10.5555/3298483.3298684
arXiv Id:
1706.03762
Access URL:
https://arxiv.org/abs/1706.03762
Peer Reviewed:
yes